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The Evolution of Cooperation - Social Software and the Shadow of the Future.

( Complexity , Reviews , System Design ) Evolution of Cooperation. By Robert Axelrod

The Evolution of Cooperation by Robert Axelrod is an outstanding book. First published in 1984 it has increased in significance with the evolution of the Internet. In the book Axelrod examines how cooperation can emerge and stabilize in multi-participant environments. The book is fascinating as an analysis of the evolution of cooperation, but is of particular interest to anyone seeking to establish effective; social software systems, peer-to-peer networks, or multi-player gaming environments. Axelrod builds his thesis on the analysis of a gaming tournament he organized. He invited multiple people from many different fields; economics, computer science, evolutionary biology, etc, to submit computer programs employing well defined strategies to play a series of games of Prisoner's Dilemma. Each program played several hundred games against every other program. The results were surprising and enlightening.

The Prisoner's Dilemma

In the game of Prisoner's Dilemma there are two players, who each have two choices. Each player chooses simultaneously, to cooperate or to defect. If they both choose to cooperate they both get R - the reward for mutual cooperation. If they both choose to defect they both get P - the punishment for mutual defection. If one cooperates and the other defects then the defector gets T - the temptation, and the cooperative player gets S - the suckers payoff. The dilemma comes from the fact that the best strategy depends on the opponent's strategy and a smart player knows this, so players must both second guess each other.

The following table shows the scoring system used by Axelrod for the Prisoner's Dilemma tournament.

Player Two
Cooperate Defect
Player
One
Cooperate R=3, R=3
Reward for mutual cooperation
S=0, T=5
Sucker's payoff, and temptation to defect
Defect T=5, S=0
Temptation to defect and sucker's payoff
P=1, P=1
Punishment for mutual defection

The results above are one specific case. Any game is a Prisoner's Dilemma if it satisfies the following inequalities:

T > R > P > S
And
R > (T+S)/2
(This second inequality means it is better to cooperate than alternately defect and cooperate)

In the Axelrod's tournament one of the simplest strategies was the clear winner. Axelrod calls this strategy Tit-for-Tat - Cooperate on the first move and thereafter do whatever the opponent did on the previous move. Why this strategy is so successful and what it means is the subject of the rest of the book.

The Shadow of the Future

Axelrod defines a term "w" for weight (or importance) of a future result. He assumes that w always takes a value between zero and one (0 < w < 1). If w is 1 then future results are as important as current results, but if w is 0.5, for example, then future results are half as important as current results. The current value of the next result is calculated by multiplying the payoff by w. High values of w mean the future is more important and low values mean it is less important. The net present value of a series of future results can be calculated according to this formula.

Net Present Value Formula
where w is equivalent to 1 / (1+rate)

Axelrod poetically calls the concept of a net present value "The Shadow of the Future". Increasing w increases the size of the shadow whereas decreasing w decreases the size of the shadow.

The concept of the net present value of future earnings is a common one in economics and is fundamental in many investment decisions. Future earnings are less valuable than current earnings because of risk and opportunity costs. It is not certain that two players will actually meet again or that they will behave in a predictable manner. External influences could change the expected outcome. And there are usually alternative strategies that could be just as rewarding for the same risk.

Collective and Territorial Stability

If the game is played in rounds (where each round consists of many hundreds of turns) and the population of players using a given strategy in the next round is determined by the success of that strategy in the previous round. Then the concept of invasion and collective stability can be examined. A collectively stable strategy is one where a large number of agents using the same strategy cannot be "invaded" by a single agent playing a different strategy. Axelrod shows that some strategies can invade a larger group if there is more than one agent playing the invading strategy. He goes on to prove that Collectively stable strategies are also territorially stable. That is if agents can play only with adjacent agents the same rules apply.

Axelrod's Propositions

Axelrod defines 8 propositions based on his analysis of the tournament. About half of the book is spent explaining these propositions.

  1. If the Discount parameter, w, is sufficiently high, there is no best strategy independent of the strategy used by the other player
  2. The Tit-for-Tat strategy is collectively stable if and only if, w is large enough. This critical value of w is a function of the four payoff parameters, T, R, P, and S
  3. Any strategy which may be the first to cooperate can vbe collectively stable only when w is sufficiently large
  4. For a nice strategy to be collectively stable, it must be provoked by the very first defection of the other player
  5. The strategy Always-Defect is always collectively stable
  6. The strategies which can invade Always-Defect in a cluster with the smallest value of p (the weighted average score an invader gets from games with other invaders and incumbents) are those which are maximally discriminating, such as Tit-for-Tat
  7. If a nice strategy cannot be invaded by a single individual, it cannot be invaded by a cluster of individuals either
  8. If a rule is collectively stable, it is territorially stable

How to do well

Axelrod provides four maxims for how to do well as a participant in situations similar to iterated games of Prison Dilemma.

How to encourage cooperation

Axelrod provides another set of maxims for those trying to encourage cooperation among players.

Shirky's Restatement

In his recent essay A Group is its own Worst Enemy Clay Shirky simplifies and restates similar findings by suggesting "four things to design for" when designing a social software system:

  1. If you were going to build a piece of social software to support large and long-lived groups, what would you design for? The first thing you would design for is handles the user can invest in.
  2. You have to design a way for there to be members in good standing. Have to design some way in which good works get recognized. The minimal way is, posts appear with identity. You can do more sophisticated things like having formal karma or "member since."
  3. You need barriers to participation. This is one of the things that killed Usenet. You have to have some cost to either join or participate, if not at the lowest level, then at higher levels. There needs to be some kind of segmentation of capabilities.
  4. You have to find a way to spare the group from scale. Scale alone kills conversations, because conversations require dense two-way conversations. In conversational contexts, Metcalfe's law is a drag. The fact that the amount of two-way connections you have to support goes up with the square of the users means that the density of conversation falls off very fast as the system scales even a little bit. You have to have some way to let users hang onto the less is more pattern, in order to keep associated with one another.

Emergence of Social Structures at the boundary of Cooperation and Defection

These lessons can be usefully applied to a variety of networked communities such as; peer-to-peer networks, multi-player gaming environments, and other social software systems if the community in question is playing a close analogue of the Prisoners Dilemma. This is true when the payoff scheme has equivalents to the payoffs R,P,T,S, and these equivalents satisfy, or can be made to satisfy, the inequalities T > R > P > S and R > (T+S)/2.

In his fine book Complexity: The Emerging Science at the Edge of Order and Chaos. , Mitchell M. Waldrop states that systems evolve most rapidly when they are pushed to the edge of chaos and order because this is the region where complexity emerges spontaneously. The inequalities that define the Prisoner's Dilemma describe a similar boundary, between cooperation and defection, where complex social structures like ethics, ritual, and reputation emerge. I believe the most interesting social environments are the most adaptive environments, that support the emergence of complex social structures, that are only possible because both cooperation and defection are permitted. I believe it is therefore worth pushing networked environments towards this edge by making cooperation only slightly more attractive than defection. In other words R > (T+S)/2, but only just!

In many cases existing environments could be greatly improved if the payoff scheme were brought more into balance. It is common for the payoff scheme of these environments to be out of balance, either defectors go unpunished or there is no opportunity to defect and everyone becomes a sucker ripe for exploitation. By applying some of the maxims defined by Axelrod the payoff schemes of these environments can be moved towards a more balanced state typical of the Prisoner's Dilemma. The important point to realize is that the option to defect is necessary because it is this option that drives the emergence of many social structures whose purpose is to encourage cooperation. These emergent features are only found where they are necessary to tip the balance between cooperation and defection in favor of cooperation.

Posted by John on 2003/10/31 | TrackBack (669)

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2.»ó´ë¹æÀÌ ¹è¹ÝÇÒ °æ¿ì ÀÀÂ¡ÇØ¾ß ÇÑ´Ù.(Provocability) »ó´ë¹æÀÇ ¹è¹Ý¿¡ ´ëÇØ¼­´Â (¹è¹ÝÀ¸·Î) º¸º¹ÇÑ´Ù. »ó´ëÀÇ ¹è¹Ý¿¡ ´ëÇÏ¿© ¹Ý¹ßÇÏÁö ¾ÊÀ¸¸é, ¼±ÇÏÁö ¾Ê°í »ó´ëÀÇ ¾àÁ¡À» ÀÌ¿ëÇÏ·Á ÇÏ´Â Á¤Ã¥µé·ÎºÎÅÍ ÂøÃë´çÇÏ°Ô µÈ´Ù.

3.¿ë¼­Ç϶ó. (Forgivingness) »ó´ë¹æÀÌ ¹è¹ÝÇÏ¿´À» ¶§ °Å±â¿¡ ´ëÇØ¼­ ³¡±îÁö ¿ë¼­ÇÏÁö ¾Ê°í ÀÀ¡À¸·Î¼­ °è¼Ó ¹è¹ÝÀ» ¼±ÅÃÇÏ´Â Àü·«Àº ÁÁÀº ¼º°ú¸¦ ¿Ã¸®±â ¾î·Æ´Ù. ¾î¶² ¹æ½ÄÀ¸·Îµç Ãæµ¹ ÈÄ È­ÇØÀÇ ºÐÀ§±â¸¦ Á¶¼ºÇÏ¿© »ó´ë¿Í ´Ù½Ã Çùµ¿ÀûÀÎ °ü°è¸¦ ȸº¹ÇÏ´Â °ÍÀÌ ÇÊ¿äÇÏ´Ù.

4.Çൿ ¹æ½ÄÀº »ó´ë¹æÀÌ ÀÌÇØÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖÀ» Á¤µµ·Î °£´ÜÇØ¾ß ÇÑ´Ù. (Clear) : °æ±âÀÇ ¹æ½ÄÀº ÀϰüÀûÀ̾î¾ß ÇÏ°í ¿¹ÃøÀÌ ½¬¾î¾ß ÇÑ´Ù. ³ªÀÇ ¹ÝÀÀ ¹æ½ÄÀÌ ³Ê¹« º¹ÀâÇÏ¸é »ó´ë¹æÀº ³ªÀÇ ¹ÝÀÀ ÆÐÅÏÀ» ÀÌÇØÇÏÁö ¸øÇϰí ÀÚ±âÀÇ Çൿ¿¡ ´ëÇØ¼­ ¹ÝÀÀÇÏÁö ¾Ê´Â °ÍÀ¸·Î »ý°¢ÇÏ°Ô µÈ´Ù. ±×·¸°Ô µÇ¸é »ó´ë´Â ³ª¿¡°Ô Çùµ¿ÇÒ À¯ÀÎÀ» ¹ß°ßÇÏÁö ¸øÇÏ°Ô µÈ´Ù. ¾î´À Á¤µµ Á÷¼±ÀûÀÎ ¼º°ÝÀÌ ÇÊ¿äÇÏ´Ù´Â ¸»ÀÌ´Ù.

ÀÌ»óÀÇ ¿ä±¸µÇ´Â Àü·«¼Ó¼ºµéÀ» ¹¶¶×±×·Á Ç¥ÇöÇÑ´Ù¸é, ¡°¸ÕÀú ¹è¹ÝÇÏÁö ¸»°í, ÀÀ¡ÇϵÇ, ¿ë¼­Ç϶ó.¡± Àº ÀÌ»óÀÇ ³× °¡Áö ¹Ù¶÷Á÷ÇÑ ¼º°ÝµéÀ» ¸ðµÎ ±¸ºñÇϰí ÀÖ´Â ´ëÇ¥ÀûÀÎ Àü·«ÀÌ´Ù.



Posted by Lee, heejin on 2004/03/27

Axelrod� The evolution of cooperation � 내용� �당히 �� 깊었다. 그가 제시한 Prisonor’s Theory �서와 같� �황�서� 협력� 누구나 한번쯤� �� 해 보았� 만한 내용으로 특히 ���활 가운��서� 쉽게 그런 �황� 찾아볼 수 있다는 �� ��했� 때 매우 실용�� �론�� ��한다.

Prsonor’s Theory�서 보면 2�� � 당사�� 선�지가 복수 � 때� �들� �� 합리�� 선�� 하게 �면 전체��� 합� 최소가 �� 알 수 있다. 즉, �대방� 어떤 선�� 하� �관없� 한 개�� 입장�서 보면 Cooperate보다는 Defect 할 때� ��� �게 �므로 합리�� 개�� Defect를 선�하게 �다. 하지만 양측 모� �런 합리�� 선�� 하여 Defect를 선�했� 시, 전체� ��� 가능한 4개� 경우 가운� 가장 �게 나타난다. �렇게 합리�� 선�� 했��� 불구하고 최악� 결과가 나오는 �런 현�� Prisonor’s dilemma �고 한다.

ì?´ë ‡ë“¯ 게임ì?´ 한번으로 ë??나면 ë‘? 당사ìž?ì?˜ 협력 가능성ì?€ 없다. 하지만, 게임ì?´ 한번 ë¿?ì?´ 아니ë?¼ 언제 ë??ë‚ ì§€ 모른다면, 즉, 당사ìž? ë‘? 명ì?´ 계ì†? 관계를 맺어야 하는 ìƒ?황ì?´ë?¼ë©´ ì?´ì•¼ê¸°ëŠ” 달ë?¼ì§„다. Axelordê°€ ì´ˆì ?ì?„ 맞춘 부분ì?€ ì?´ 부분ì?´ë‹¤. Axelord는 indefinite number of interactionì?´ 있ì?„ 시ì—? w를 weight (or importance) of a future result ë?¼ ë‘?었다. 즉 w를 1기후ì—? 게임ì?´ 다시 있ì?„ 확률로 í•´ì„?한 것ì?´ë‹¤.

�렇게 미래� 가능성 w를 염�� �고 가장 합리�� 선�� 하는 방법으로 Axelrod가 제시한 합리�� 선� 방법� 바로 Tit for Tat �었다. Tit for Tat � �대방� 무슨 선�� 내리� �관없� 처��는 무조건 cooperate 하고, 그 후� 선�� 있어서는 �대방� 선�� 따� cooperate와 defect를 결정하는 선� 방법� �한다. �는 �당히 효과�� 방법으로 만약 양측 모� Tit for Tat� 방법� 선�한다면 결국�는 � 사람 모� 최대� ��� 얻게 �다.

Axelrod� �론 중 가장 �� 깊었� 부분� 바로 � Tit for Tat 선��다. �는 비단 경제학�서�만 아니� ���� 삶� 있어서� �용 � 수 있는 �론��고 ��한다. 예를 들어 친구가 나� �움� 필요로 할 때 내가 시간�나 금전�� 면�서 조금 �해를 보는 한� 있어� 그 친구를 �와준다면 훗날 내가 친구� �움� 필요할 때� 친구 역시 내가 전� 배풀었� 호�를 보고 나�게 협력하게 � 것�기 때문�다.

Axelrod� �론� 복잡한 다른 경제학 �론과는 달리 실�활�서 얼마든지 겪� 수 있는 �황� 묘사했다는 ��서 여러모로 공��는 부분� 많았다. 친구 혹�

다른사람과� 관계� 있어 Axelrod� �론 처럼 먼저 협력� 할 수 있는 마�가�� 지니고 살아야겠다.



Posted by 류근우 on 2004/03/28

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