The Evolution of Cooperation by Robert Axelrod is an outstanding book. First published in 1984 it has increased in significance with the evolution of the Internet. In the book Axelrod examines how cooperation can emerge and stabilize in multi-participant environments. The book is fascinating as an analysis of the evolution of cooperation, but is of particular interest to anyone seeking to establish effective; social software systems, peer-to-peer networks, or multi-player gaming environments. Axelrod builds his thesis on the analysis of a gaming tournament he organized. He invited multiple people from many different fields; economics, computer science, evolutionary biology, etc, to submit computer programs employing well defined strategies to play a series of games of Prisoner's Dilemma. Each program played several hundred games against every other program. The results were surprising and enlightening.
In the game of Prisoner's Dilemma there are two players, who each have two choices. Each player chooses simultaneously, to cooperate or to defect. If they both choose to cooperate they both get R - the reward for mutual cooperation. If they both choose to defect they both get P - the punishment for mutual defection. If one cooperates and the other defects then the defector gets T - the temptation, and the cooperative player gets S - the suckers payoff. The dilemma comes from the fact that the best strategy depends on the opponent's strategy and a smart player knows this, so players must both second guess each other.
The following table shows the scoring system used by Axelrod for the Prisoner's Dilemma tournament.
| Player Two | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Cooperate | Defect | ||
| Player One |
Cooperate | R=3, R=3 Reward for mutual cooperation |
S=0, T=5 Sucker's payoff, and temptation to defect |
| Defect | T=5, S=0 Temptation to defect and sucker's payoff |
P=1, P=1 Punishment for mutual defection |
|
The results above are one specific case. Any game is a Prisoner's Dilemma if it satisfies the following inequalities:
T > R > P > S
And
R > (T+S)/2
(This second inequality means it is better to cooperate than alternately defect and cooperate)
In the Axelrod's tournament one of the simplest strategies was the clear winner. Axelrod calls this strategy Tit-for-Tat - Cooperate on the first move and thereafter do whatever the opponent did on the previous move. Why this strategy is so successful and what it means is the subject of the rest of the book.
Axelrod defines a term "w" for weight (or importance) of a future result. He assumes that w always takes a value between zero and one (0 < w < 1). If w is 1 then future results are as important as current results, but if w is 0.5, for example, then future results are half as important as current results. The current value of the next result is calculated by multiplying the payoff by w. High values of w mean the future is more important and low values mean it is less important. The net present value of a series of future results can be calculated according to this formula.
Axelrod poetically calls the concept of a net present value "The Shadow of the Future". Increasing w increases the size of the shadow whereas decreasing w decreases the size of the shadow.
The concept of the net present value of future earnings is a common one in economics and is fundamental in many investment decisions. Future earnings are less valuable than current earnings because of risk and opportunity costs. It is not certain that two players will actually meet again or that they will behave in a predictable manner. External influences could change the expected outcome. And there are usually alternative strategies that could be just as rewarding for the same risk.
If the game is played in rounds (where each round consists of many hundreds of turns) and the population of players using a given strategy in the next round is determined by the success of that strategy in the previous round. Then the concept of invasion and collective stability can be examined. A collectively stable strategy is one where a large number of agents using the same strategy cannot be "invaded" by a single agent playing a different strategy. Axelrod shows that some strategies can invade a larger group if there is more than one agent playing the invading strategy. He goes on to prove that Collectively stable strategies are also territorially stable. That is if agents can play only with adjacent agents the same rules apply.
Axelrod defines 8 propositions based on his analysis of the tournament. About half of the book is spent explaining these propositions.
Axelrod provides four maxims for how to do well as a participant in situations similar to iterated games of Prison Dilemma.
Axelrod provides another set of maxims for those trying to encourage cooperation among players.
In his recent essay A Group is its own Worst Enemy Clay Shirky simplifies and restates similar findings by suggesting "four things to design for" when designing a social software system:
These lessons can be usefully applied to a variety of networked communities such as; peer-to-peer networks, multi-player gaming environments, and other social software systems if the community in question is playing a close analogue of the Prisoners Dilemma. This is true when the payoff scheme has equivalents to the payoffs R,P,T,S, and these equivalents satisfy, or can be made to satisfy, the inequalities T > R > P > S and R > (T+S)/2.
In his fine book Complexity: The Emerging Science at the Edge of Order and Chaos. , Mitchell M. Waldrop states that systems evolve most rapidly when they are pushed to the edge of chaos and order because this is the region where complexity emerges spontaneously. The inequalities that define the Prisoner's Dilemma describe a similar boundary, between cooperation and defection, where complex social structures like ethics, ritual, and reputation emerge. I believe the most interesting social environments are the most adaptive environments, that support the emergence of complex social structures, that are only possible because both cooperation and defection are permitted. I believe it is therefore worth pushing networked environments towards this edge by making cooperation only slightly more attractive than defection. In other words R > (T+S)/2, but only just!
In many cases existing environments could be greatly improved if the payoff scheme were brought more into balance. It is common for the payoff scheme of these environments to be out of balance, either defectors go unpunished or there is no opportunity to defect and everyone becomes a sucker ripe for exploitation. By applying some of the maxims defined by Axelrod the payoff schemes of these environments can be moved towards a more balanced state typical of the Prisoner's Dilemma. The important point to realize is that the option to defect is necessary because it is this option that drives the emergence of many social structures whose purpose is to encourage cooperation. These emergent features are only found where they are necessary to tip the balance between cooperation and defection in favor of cooperation.
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ÀÌ»óÀÇ ¿ä±¸µÇ´Â Àü·«¼Ó¼ºµéÀ» ¹¶¶×±×·Á Ç¥ÇöÇÑ´Ù¸é, ¡°¸ÕÀú ¹è¹ÝÇÏÁö ¸»°í, ÀÀ¡ÇϵÇ, ¿ë¼Ç϶ó.¡± Àº ÀÌ»óÀÇ ³× °¡Áö ¹Ù¶÷Á÷ÇÑ ¼º°ÝµéÀ» ¸ðµÎ ±¸ºñÇϰí ÀÖ´Â ´ëÇ¥ÀûÀÎ Àü·«ÀÌ´Ù.
Axelrodì?˜ The evolution of cooperation ì?˜ ë‚´ìš©ì?€ ìƒ?당히 ì?¸ìƒ? 깊었다. 그가 ì œì‹œí•œ Prisonor’s Theory ì—?서와 ê°™ì?€ ìƒ?황ì—?서ì?˜ í˜‘ë ¥ì?€ 누구나 한번쯤ì?€ ìƒ?ê°? í•´ 보았ì?„ 만한 내용으로 특히 ì?¼ìƒ?ìƒ?활 가운ë?°ì—?서ë?„ 쉽게 그런 ìƒ?황ì?„ 찾아볼 수 있다는 ì ?ì?„ ìƒ?ê°?í–ˆì?„ 때 매우 실용ì ?ì?¸ ì?´ë¡ ì?´ë?¼ ìƒ?ê°?한다.
Prsonor’s Theoryì—?서 ë³´ë©´ 2ì?¸ì?´ ê°? 당사ìž?ì?˜ ì„ íƒ?지가 복수 ì?¼ 때ì—? ì?´ë“¤ì?´ ê°?ê°? 합리ì ?ì?¸ ì„ íƒ?ì?„ 하게 ë?˜ë©´ ì „ì²´ì?´ì?µì?˜ í•©ì?€ 최소가 ë?¨ì?„ 알 수 있다. 즉, ìƒ?대방ì?´ ì–´ë–¤ ì„ íƒ?ì?„ 하ë?˜ ìƒ?관없ì?´ 한 ê°œì?¸ì?˜ 입장ì—?서 ë³´ë©´ Cooperate보다는 Defect í• ë•Œì?˜ ì?´ë“?ì?´ í?¬ê²Œ ë?˜ë¯€ë¡œ 합리ì ?ì?¸ ê°œì?¸ì?€ Defect를 ì„ íƒ?하게 ë?œë‹¤. 하지만 양측 모ë‘? ì?´ëŸ° 합리ì ?ì?¸ ì„ íƒ?ì?„ 하여 Defect를 ì„ íƒ?í–ˆì?„ 시, ì „ì²´ì?˜ ì?´ì?µì?€ 가능한 4ê°œì?˜ 경우 가운ë?° 가장 ì ?게 나타난다. ì?´ë ‡ê²Œ 합리ì ?ì?¸ ì„ íƒ?ì?„ í–ˆì?Œì—?ë?„ ë¶ˆêµ¬í•˜ê³ ìµœì•…ì?˜ 결과가 나오는 ì?´ëŸ° 현ìƒ?ì?„ Prisonor’s dilemma ë?¼ê³ 한다.
ì?´ë ‡ë“¯ 게임ì?´ 한번으로 ë??나면 ë‘? 당사ìž?ì?˜ í˜‘ë ¥ 가능성ì?€ 없다. 하지만, 게임ì?´ 한번 ë¿?ì?´ 아니ë?¼ ì–¸ì œ ë??ë‚ ì§€ 모른다면, 즉, 당사ìž? ë‘? 명ì?´ 계ì†? 관계를 맺어야 하는 ìƒ?황ì?´ë?¼ë©´ ì?´ì•¼ê¸°ëŠ” 달ë?¼ì§„다. Axelordê°€ ì´ˆì ?ì?„ 맞춘 부분ì?€ ì?´ 부분ì?´ë‹¤. Axelord는 indefinite number of interactionì?´ 있ì?„ 시ì—? w를 weight (or importance) of a future result ë?¼ ë‘?었다. 즉 w를 1기후ì—? 게임ì?´ 다시 있ì?„ í™•ë¥ ë¡œ í•´ì„?한 것ì?´ë‹¤.
ì?´ë ‡ê²Œ 미래ì?˜ 가능성 w를 ì—¼ë‘?ì—? ë‘?ê³ ê°€ìž¥ 합리ì ?ì?¸ ì„ íƒ?ì?„ 하는 방법으로 Axelrodê°€ ì œì‹œí•œ 합리ì ?ì?¸ ì„ íƒ? 방법ì?€ 바로 Tit for Tat ì?´ì—ˆë‹¤. Tit for Tat ì?€ ìƒ?대방ì?´ 무슨 ì„ íƒ?ì?„ 내리ë?˜ ìƒ?관없ì?´ 처ì?Œì—?는 무조건 cooperate í•˜ê³ , ê·¸ 후ì?˜ ì„ íƒ?ì—? 있어서는 ìƒ?대방ì?˜ ì„ íƒ?ì—? ë”°ë?¼ cooperate와 defect를 ê²°ì •í•˜ëŠ” ì„ íƒ? 방법ì?„ ë§?한다. ì?´ëŠ” ìƒ?당히 효과ì ?ì?¸ 방법으로 만약 양측 모ë‘? Tit for Tatì?˜ 방법ì?„ ì„ íƒ?한다면 ê²°êµì—?는 ë‘? 사람 모ë‘? 최대ì?˜ ì?´ì?µì?„ 얻게 ë?œë‹¤.
Axelrodì?˜ ì?´ë¡ 중 가장 ì?¸ìƒ? 깊었ë?˜ 부분ì?´ 바로 ì?´ Tit for Tat ì„ íƒ?ì?´ë‹¤. ì?´ëŠ” 비단 ê²½ì œí•™ì—?서ë¿?ë§Œ 아니ë?¼ ì?¼ìƒ?ì ?ì?¸ ì‚¶ì—? 있어서ë?„ ì ?ìš© ë? 수 있는 ì?´ë¡ ì?´ë?¼ê³ ìƒ?ê°?한다. 예를 들어 친구가 나ì?˜ ë?„움ì?„ 필요로 í• ë•Œ ë‚´ê°€ 시간ì?´ë‚˜ ê¸ˆì „ì ?ì?¸ ë©´ì—?서 조금 ì†?해를 보는 한ì?´ 있어ë?„ ê·¸ 친구를 ë?„와준다면 í›—ë‚ ë‚´ê°€ 친구ì?˜ ë?„움ì?´ í•„ìš”í• ë•Œì—? 친구 ì—시 ë‚´ê°€ ì „ì—? 배풀었ë?˜ 호ì?˜ë¥¼ ë³´ê³ ë‚˜ì—?게 í˜‘ë ¥í•˜ê²Œ ë? 것ì?´ê¸° 때문ì?´ë‹¤.
Axelrodì?˜ ì?´ë¡ ì?€ 복잡한 다른 ê²½ì œí•™ ì?´ë¡ 과는 달리 실ìƒ?활ì—?서 ì–¼ë§ˆë“ ì§€ 겪ì?„ 수 있는 ìƒ?황ì?„ 묘사했다는 ì ?ì—?서 여러모로 ê³µê°?ë?˜ëŠ” 부분ì?´ 많았다. 친구 혹ì?€
다른사람과ì?˜ 관계ì—? 있어 Axelrodì?˜ ì?´ë¡ 처럼 ë¨¼ì € í˜‘ë ¥ì?„ í• ìˆ˜ 있는 마ì?Œê°€ì§?ì?„ ì§€ë‹ˆê³ ì‚´ì•„ì•¼ê² ë‹¤.